tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-64450910404743889192024-03-14T07:27:56.182+05:30Aircraft Maintenance Engineering-MechanicalYasantha Pathiranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18412326342171131296noreply@blogger.comBlogger98125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6445091040474388919.post-54505053488054600692021-07-13T20:37:00.005+05:302021-07-13T21:39:22.289+05:30Magnetic Chip Detectors<div><span style="font-family: arial;">The third component we will be discussing under <a href="https://aviamech.blogspot.com/2021/05/aircraft-engine-lubrication-systems.html">AircraftLubrication systems</a> is the Magnetic Chip Detector (MCD’s). As the name
implies, it is a detector, which functions on the principal of magnetism.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><br />Main function of the magnetic chip detector is to provide
condition monitoring of the engine and its lubrication system components. To give an early warning of bearing failure, magnetic chip detectors are fitted in the
system. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;">They are normally of the bayonet type fitting with auto sealing adaptors thus, can be removed,
inspected and replaced very quickly, with no oil spillage. They are often found </span><span style="font-family: arial;"> in gearboxes and in the scavenge pump return lines where the metal
debris are often found.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;">See below for details
of a lubrication pump MCD.
<br /><br />
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<o:p> <br /></o:p><o:p> <br /></o:p><br /></span></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgE8j3pVADIvt4AU3QVczdoMR90qJSBKUnBqG4ryKIhwpL0ijhnXAHZMPd5e_TdMjYkWeCDL06sdsVditg9O71A1OTnCWEQbiJIc40DMHlXW-wruHiDKpPb3ELo2rZfQILWFVCmooGMUUo/s565/plug.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="565" data-original-width="508" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgE8j3pVADIvt4AU3QVczdoMR90qJSBKUnBqG4ryKIhwpL0ijhnXAHZMPd5e_TdMjYkWeCDL06sdsVditg9O71A1OTnCWEQbiJIc40DMHlXW-wruHiDKpPb3ELo2rZfQILWFVCmooGMUUo/w360-h400/plug.png" width="360" /></a></div><br /><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;">In earlier versions of engines, the detection is done
visually by removing and inspecting the chip detector at periodic intervals. However, On modern engines this is done electronically. If there are metallic debris that comes into contact, it completes an electrical pathway and provides
a cockpit indications. Magnetic Chip Detectors (MCD’s) alerts / indication to
the flight deck informs the pilot of contamination that requiring attention. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;">Often the
low resistance across the MCD, can be caused by
small carbon deposits or tiny metallic deposits that are insignificant as far
as engine wear is concerned. In such cases, there may be a ‘fuzz burner’ fitted
that will pass an sufficient electrical charge through the MCD and clear off
the fine debris and leave only major particles. If the warning light still remains
‘ON’ then the pilot knows that the debris is of a more serious nature.<br /><o:p> </o:p></span><br /></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p>Below illustration shows the location of MCDs in a <a href="https://aviamech.blogspot.com/2021/05/aircraft-engine-lubrication-unit.html">Lubrication Pump</a> scavange lines.</o:p></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p><br /></o:p></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p><br /></o:p></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcSYHHv8sfAqePcQoUPPxJnXbkF71FMkfjIw2trJLl92VqbCVadH2ulqBpvM3QroDgoXJ6TVqZBDNzeWvu13Q6n9PTdDtZC_z_vSgASz5oQzYktVmgyglwKKR6LmWcmJYpk_69XrrGYSs/s471/lube+chip+detec.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="299" data-original-width="471" height="254" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcSYHHv8sfAqePcQoUPPxJnXbkF71FMkfjIw2trJLl92VqbCVadH2ulqBpvM3QroDgoXJ6TVqZBDNzeWvu13Q6n9PTdDtZC_z_vSgASz5oQzYktVmgyglwKKR6LmWcmJYpk_69XrrGYSs/w400-h254/lube+chip+detec.png" width="400" /></a></div><br /><o:p><br /></o:p></span></div><p class="MsoNormal">
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</script></div>Yasantha Pathiranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18412326342171131296noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6445091040474388919.post-7421186381126626102021-05-24T15:46:00.013+05:302021-05-24T16:07:07.699+05:30Aircraft Engine Lubrication Unit ( Lubrication Pump)<span style="font-family: arial;">Lubrication unit Or simply said the Lubrication pump system is the main driving force behind the pressurized lubricants in a jet engine. Its main function is to provide oil under the required pressure for lubrication of the engine components and spool bearings, then perform the scavenging (returning) of the oil after lubrication process then finally to directs it to the oil tank via </span><span style="font-family: arial;">the oil/fuel heat exchanger.</span><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;">In order to pressurize and to maintain positive displacement flow, it uses a series of pumps which are driven by a single shaft. Often the pump is a <a href="https://aviamech.blogspot.com/2011/12/gerotor-pump-gearrotor.html" target="_blank">Gerortor pump</a> (Click on to read on Gerotor pump construction) which is driven by a single shaft. Number of pumps in the shaft depends on the number of supply and scavenge systems available. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></div>
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<div><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;">Lubrication units has its main supply inlet from the Main <a href="https://aviamech.blogspot.com/2021/04/aircraft-engine-oil-tanks.html" target="_blank">Oil Tank</a> , one or more Supply lines and one or more scavenge lines for returning oil. It also has various tapping for temperature and pressure measuring sensors. (See below)</span></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiK2enxIPdYtMDl1iz796t2vTL3nB0qEKwuOunDdsEbbZgxSeS_fuNBd8Tbj7fek3GH5ai4L-w-hx7pmdNacbnX4JfYdgdqLK7J6yFVMtYCY3hopR_uXDXXSS9c8C9W9E4gGtBwhwtlQUA/s628/LUBE+PUMP+YASA.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="506" data-original-width="628" height="323" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiK2enxIPdYtMDl1iz796t2vTL3nB0qEKwuOunDdsEbbZgxSeS_fuNBd8Tbj7fek3GH5ai4L-w-hx7pmdNacbnX4JfYdgdqLK7J6yFVMtYCY3hopR_uXDXXSS9c8C9W9E4gGtBwhwtlQUA/w400-h323/LUBE+PUMP+YASA.png" width="400" /></a></div></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;">The return lines are equipped with scavenge filter screens/mesh to remove any debris from entering the pump system. Each scavenge line is often provided with oil condition monitoring magnetic chip detectors. Magnetic chip detectors works by attracting metal substances to its tip and provide good indications on possible failures in the system ( based on metal analysis). It also aid in reducing the amount of powdery metallic debris in oil system by attracting the metallic substances.(See below)</span></div>
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<div><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjCELheaCjCAeWc3rA_uSVALejdiOTZOR76GjadosIHtPS3EFtQEFShFpdekQsAtMYb3N9bhlkq3L0mS7G6eOtu9acgcJ3N0-KZhQUWzfZ_RQwTdEEaUtq4NNryjE1EN1zSKg5gaKV00BQ/s526/lube+side+a.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="477" data-original-width="526" height="363" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjCELheaCjCAeWc3rA_uSVALejdiOTZOR76GjadosIHtPS3EFtQEFShFpdekQsAtMYb3N9bhlkq3L0mS7G6eOtu9acgcJ3N0-KZhQUWzfZ_RQwTdEEaUtq4NNryjE1EN1zSKg5gaKV00BQ/w400-h363/lube+side+a.png" width="400" /></a></div></div>
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<h3 style="margin-top: 6pt; text-align: left;"><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: left;"><div><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: small;">As the gas turbine engines have limited number of moving
components their lubrication requirements are much simpler to meet. This is
because the oil does not lubricate any parts that are directly heated by
combustion (i.e Combustion chambers, Turbine Blades/Vanes...etc) </span></span></div><div><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: small;"><br />
However, for a sustained and prolonged operation, the engine requires ample
supply of lubricating oil at all the bearings, gears and driving splines. This
supply should be a continuous flow of clean filtered oil and an appropriate
temperature, pressure and viscosity, throughout the engine operation.<br />
Main goals of engine lubricating oils are to:<br /><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: small;"> Lubricate</span></span></li><li><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: small;"> Cool/ carry away the heat</span></span></li><li><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: small;"> Prevent corrosion</span></span></li><li><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: small;"> Resist oxidation at high
temperatures</span></span></li><li><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: small;"> Possess suitable viscosity
at all operating temperatures</span></span></li></ul>Gas turbine engines uses specially formulated low viscosity
synthetic oil that does not originate from mineral oil. military specification
MIL-PRF-7808 commonly referred as Type I jet oil and
MIL-PRF-23699 commonly referred as Type II Jet oil are some examples of
such synthetic aviation oils. It is essential that only those oils
specified by the engine manufacturer are used. <br /><o:p> <br /></o:p>The ultimate decision of which oil to be used is decided by
the operation characteristics and the loads of the engine including the bearing
temperatures. Often the selection of the appropriate type of oil is a results
of multiple engine tests and lab analysis of the oil. There are wide range of
components being used in the lubrication system and basic overview is given in
the below diagram. More details of each components will be discussed in later
posts.
<br /><br />Following video is created to provide overview of the lubrication system : <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" class="BLOG_video_class" height="266" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Kwh9LOqH1QA" width="457" youtube-src-id="Kwh9LOqH1QA"></iframe></div><br /><br />
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<o:p> <br /></o:p><o:p> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj955YbuPbLDcpxrWgV9t7lAugpSUlvJIjkZccuIS3Kg2EZtwuj9oXhCE3T13cSdo7SiDxS4mr1iyFrJ5CAapycto2zF3ANoPHeWJChffI9bM-AeeoF9PlKcPc1Ql3d6WVXbj_NKYwuIFo/s751/lube+system.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="524" data-original-width="751" height="334" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj955YbuPbLDcpxrWgV9t7lAugpSUlvJIjkZccuIS3Kg2EZtwuj9oXhCE3T13cSdo7SiDxS4mr1iyFrJ5CAapycto2zF3ANoPHeWJChffI9bM-AeeoF9PlKcPc1Ql3d6WVXbj_NKYwuIFo/w498-h334/lube+system.png" width="498" /></a></div><br /></o:p></span></span><br /></div><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
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</div></h3></div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><script async src="https://pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/js/adsbygoogle.js?client=ca-pub-2646886209802695"
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</script></div>Yasantha Pathiranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18412326342171131296noreply@blogger.com0Singapore1.352083 103.819836-26.958150836178845 68.663586 29.662316836178846 138.976086tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6445091040474388919.post-84744079887761092382021-04-25T16:00:00.010+05:302021-05-03T14:46:31.738+05:30Aircraft Engine Oil Tanks<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Engine Oil tanks are the main focal point in the aircraft lubrication
system. As the name implies, its main function is to provide storage for the
lubrication and thermal control oil being used in the engine and its
components. Oil tanks are also used for providing the additional space required
for expanding fluids due to temperature rise during its operation cycles.
Engine Oil tanks are usually attached to the frontal portion of the engine
often called Fan cases.</span></p>
<br/>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Oil tanks have few major sub-assemblies which include: </span></p><table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; border-color: rgb(128, 128, 128); color: #313131; font-family: -apple-system, HelveticaNeue; text-size-adjust: auto; width: 100%px;"><tbody style="border-color: rgb(128, 128, 128);"><tr style="border-color: rgb(128, 128, 128);"><td align="left" data-originalcomputedfontsize="12" data-originalfontsize="12px" style="border-color: rgb(68, 68, 68); color: #444444; font-family: Roboto, Arial, "Open Sans", Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 0.75rem; letter-spacing: 0.21px; line-height: 18px;" valign="top"><br /></td></tr><tr style="border-color: rgb(128, 128, 128);"><td align="left" data-originalcomputedfontsize="12" data-originalfontsize="12px" style="border-color: rgb(68, 68, 68); color: #444444; font-family: Roboto, Arial, "Open Sans", Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 0.75rem; line-height: 18px;" valign="top"><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18pt;"></p><ol style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-family: arial;">Filling port and an overflow port – For Filling
/ Top-up purposes</span></li><li><span style="font-family: arial;">Sight gage- To check fluid levels visually</span></li><li><span style="font-family: arial;">Oil-out / Supply port equipped with a strainer –
To supply Oil to the inlet of the lubrication pump</span></li><li><span style="font-family: arial;">Drain plug – To drain the tank for emptying</span></li><li><span style="font-family: arial;">Oil-in / Return port – To connect return line
from the scavenge circuit</span></li><li><span style="font-family: arial;">De-aerator /
air separator – To separate any trapped air from returning oil</span></li><li><span style="font-family: arial;">Tank vent port – To provide pressure equalizing
vents</span></li><li><span style="font-family: arial;">Oil level transmitter – An electronic measuring
system for remote indications</span></li><li><span style="font-family: arial;">Internal walls – To strengthen the oil tank
structure and also to reduce oil sloshing during operation cycles.</span></li></ol><div><div style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglXmEPVlTqkX_BH1sH7iAE6aZTyto07aTjwhVdU2thDxSahpBAR5zIHRKp7Kw13HWgii2-9SH5HpKaGBsNCsXhZOqABbg9_mMnbzsABLiYai8-ImpLP-0rkfBB7FNGtLVKqxZp0FzPnIg/s474/oil+tank.png"><img border="0" data-original-height="372" data-original-width="474" height="314" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglXmEPVlTqkX_BH1sH7iAE6aZTyto07aTjwhVdU2thDxSahpBAR5zIHRKp7Kw13HWgii2-9SH5HpKaGBsNCsXhZOqABbg9_mMnbzsABLiYai8-ImpLP-0rkfBB7FNGtLVKqxZp0FzPnIg/w400-h314/oil+tank.png" width="400" /></a></div><br /><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></div><!--[if !supportLists]--><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
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</script></div>Yasantha Pathiranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18412326342171131296noreply@blogger.com0Singapore1.352083 103.819836-26.958150836178845 68.663586 29.662316836178846 138.976086tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6445091040474388919.post-52151499449236106742016-11-13T17:06:00.004+05:302021-05-03T14:48:04.144+05:30Heat Treatment: Critical Points of Steel<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;">
When a piece of steel is heated at a uniform rate, the temperature of the steel will, at first, rise steadily. When the temperature reaches approx.700°C (a dull red colour) it will remain there for certain time then continue to rise again at a uniform rate. If the heating is continued further then occurs a second arrest in the rise in temperature. After this, if the heating is continued, the temperature will continue to rise at approximately the initial rate.<o:p></o:p><br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;">
During these periods of arrest, the metal absorbs heat, but instead of raising the temperature, the heat brings about a structural change in the steel. The temperatures at which these periods occur are called ‘critical’ or ‘arrest’ points.<o:p></o:p><br />
<br /></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;">
If the steel is heated to 900°C (a bright reddish yellow colour) then removed from the furnace and observed in a darkened room, it will be seen that, as it cools, it will lose its brilliance. At the points where it received its checks in heating the metal is seen to glow more brightly and it will seem that the cooling has stopped. In fact the steel will be seen to take on an extra glow as though it was reheated. After this the rate of cooling will be normal until the metal is cold to room temperature or becomes equal to environmental temperature. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;">
The temperature at which the changes start (lower critical point) is the same for all steels and is about 700<span style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">°</span>C. At this temperature, the internal structural change is as that the pearlite disappears and the laminae of ferrite and cementite of which it is composed, dissolves and forms the solid solution Austenite. The finishing point of the transformation is known as the upper critical point this point varies according to the steel carbon content. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The
purpose of torque loading is to make sure the correct and efficient clamping
together of two surfaces. This prevents over-stressing, distortion,
and shearing of bolts, studs, nuts etc. The majority of bolts, nuts
and unions on aircraft are subject to a standard torque loading. Special
bolts are subjected to torque loading</span></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">, which are specified in the aircraft
maintenance manual. There will be a range for the torque value in most cases an Torque
load values are normally determined by friction, type of thread, material,
lubrication and finish of the surfaces of the fasteners.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Formula</span></span><br /><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Torque =
Force X Length</span></span><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgxr6eFu3j2KXwY64ccbxmcCCNRcd3dVME3ecR34b7apvhuXxsdXi-oMvkoXdyzv_WBASXGsZOWb-xZEjljvrqgqR70Mnoq3sNUh6yVzFXXoNIwf21xGgS-Ka2c_VNRnJtk_XRJSZzW6ic/s1600/Capture.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgxr6eFu3j2KXwY64ccbxmcCCNRcd3dVME3ecR34b7apvhuXxsdXi-oMvkoXdyzv_WBASXGsZOWb-xZEjljvrqgqR70Mnoq3sNUh6yVzFXXoNIwf21xGgS-Ka2c_VNRnJtk_XRJSZzW6ic/s400/Capture.PNG" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Under
tightening of screw fasteners may result in lack of firmness between the
separate parts of the assembly causing fretting corrosion due to relative
movement , and early failure of a component may occur through fatigue or
mechanical breakdown. Conversely, over-tightening is likely to cause
immediate failure of the bolts, distortion of one or more parts of the assembly
leading to eventual failure, or to stress corrosion, or cracking this will
result by the high stressed areas cause by over torque. Due to the varying
effects of friction under different conditions of assembly it is important that
torque be applied in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. The pre-load applied to a fastener at a
specified lubricated torque would be considerably higher than if the same
torque were applied dry.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Before
even start to use torque wrench make sure All torque wrenches that are used on
aircraft are regularly inspected, tested and calibrated by a facility equipped
to do so.if the serviceable tag indicates as expired. DO NOT USE THE TOOL. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><u>How
to do it :</u></span></span></div>
<div class="StyleHeading5BULLETExampleAfter0pt">
</div>
<ul>
<li><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Clean, and lubricate the threads(if instructed on AMM) and mating surfaces of nut, bolt and washer.</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Tighten the nut to half the
specified torque value.</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Loosen the nut then finally
re-tighten to the specified torque value.</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When the torque-loaded fastener
is to be secured by means of a split pin or lock wire, tighten first to the low
side of the torque range. If necessary,
tighten the fastener so that the next slot aligns with the hole, ensuring that
the maximum torque is not exceeded. If
the maximum torque is reached and the slot in the nut does not line up with the
hole in the bolt, the nut and/or washer must be changed.</span></li>
</ul>
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</script></div>Yasantha Pathiranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18412326342171131296noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6445091040474388919.post-13212509078738595072014-12-16T19:57:00.003+05:302021-05-03T15:33:46.178+05:30Types Of Landing Gears<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The various types of landing gear are
dependent on the design and manufacture of the undercarriage units, <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The main type of landing gear for aircraft
over 5700 Kg is termed the <b>TRICYCLE UNDERCARRIAGE.<o:p></o:p></b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><b><br /></b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The tricycle undercarriage landing gear
comprises two main undercarriage units and one nose undercarriage unit. However, there are <b>THREE</b> main
variations of the tricycle undercarriage as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span></span></div>
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span><span lang="EN-US"><b><u>Standard (Boeing 737)</u></b></span></span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></span>
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span lang="EN-US">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Two
main undercarriage units<br /><o:p></o:p></span><span lang="EN-US">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">One
nose undercarriage unit</span></span><br />
<span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t75"
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<br />
<br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></span>
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></span>
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span lang="EN-US"><br /><o:p></o:p></span><b><u><span lang="EN-GB">Centreline</span><span lang="EN-GB"> (Airbus A340</span></u></b><span lang="EN-US"><b><u>)</u></b></span></span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span lang="EN-US"><b><u><br /></u></b><o:p></o:p></span><span lang="EN-US">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Two
main undercarriage units<br /><o:p></o:p></span><span lang="EN-US">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">One center-line undercarriage unit<br /><o:p></o:p></span><span lang="EN-US">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">One
nose undercarriage unit</span></span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div>
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span lang="EN-US"><br /><o:p></o:p></span><span lang="EN-US"><b><u>Wing/Body (Boeing 747)</u></b></span></span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></span>
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span lang="EN-US">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Two
main (outer) wing mounted, undercarriage units<br /><o:p></o:p></span><span lang="EN-US">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Two
main (inner) body mounted, undercarriage units<br /><o:p></o:p></span><span lang="EN-US">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--></span><span lang="EN-US"><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">One
nose undercarriage unit</span><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span></span>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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</script></div>Yasantha Pathiranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18412326342171131296noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6445091040474388919.post-41911291775898112982014-07-11T15:46:00.000+05:302014-07-11T15:46:29.459+05:30Solid Rivets<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the construction of a metal air frame,
permanent joints are made either with rivets or bolts. To securely attach
structures together, rivets are cheaper to use, lighter and more rapidly fitted
than nuts and bolts, but in the case of power operated machine riveting, more
extensive equipment is usually required to make the permanent joints.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Solid
rivets have the greatest strength and are therefore preferable to any other
type of rivet, but they can only be used where there is access to both sides of
the structure.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-GB">Rivets are always supplied to the
operator with one head already formed and the shank plain to permit insertion
into the hole, the opposite end being formed into a head by manual or
mechanical means. </span><span lang="EN-GB">The
size of a rivet is expressed as the diameter and length of its shank; the
exception is the countersunk rivet where the length is inclusive of the head</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-GB"><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi6tg-uME6oG5Nv7HVPJiNN8ocVfAJM8TvS1V0zSXuv6EytIezZr5Cv3Clhoh8se81Kczfb2I5zE30lYETVhodBNszNepzyEevMyHUnNascFhMIXD3MQHfQ9NtBL-jgUgC7AMcVGIaSNeI/s1600/aa.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi6tg-uME6oG5Nv7HVPJiNN8ocVfAJM8TvS1V0zSXuv6EytIezZr5Cv3Clhoh8se81Kczfb2I5zE30lYETVhodBNszNepzyEevMyHUnNascFhMIXD3MQHfQ9NtBL-jgUgC7AMcVGIaSNeI/s1600/aa.png" height="73" width="400" /></span></a></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span><span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></span><br />
<ol>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">SNAP HEAD : for general purposes where strength is required
but not a streamline finish.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">MUSHROOM HEAD: for skin covering to give
maximum strength.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">FLAT HEAD: for internal work where heads
are not easily accessible</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">COUNTERSUNK: for flush finish (90°, 100°, 120° head) in aviation mostly used 100°</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">RAISED COUNTERSUNK : for more streamlined surfaces.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">UNIVERSAL HEAD</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">100° COUNTERSUNK TRUNCATED RADIUS
HEAD: </span></li>
</ol>
<br />
<span lang="EN-GB">
</span><br />
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</script></div>Yasantha Pathiranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18412326342171131296noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6445091040474388919.post-54657572637485746872014-06-10T21:12:00.001+05:302014-06-10T21:14:27.475+05:30Ball Bearings <div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">These bearings are used where it is not
practical to use plain bearings, and where a high degree of reliability and
precision is required.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The advantages are:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h5>
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB">Low frictional losses<o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<h5>
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB">Wide range of loads may be
accepted<o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<h5>
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB">Simple lubrication requirements<o:p></o:p></span></h5>
<div>
<span style="text-indent: 0cm;"><b>Ball Bearings<br /></b></span></div>
<div>
<span lang="EN-GB">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">The most common type of bearing used on
aircraft. The ball bearing has many
variations in design allowing it to be used in a wide variety of situations/<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB">
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">They carry radial loads and moderate axial
loads in both directions and where a high axial load may be experienced, the
balls run in a deep groove in the races.<o:p></o:p></span>Two types of ball bearings are in general
use. The caged type and the crowded
type.<br /></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB">
</span>
<h4 style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-list: l0 level4 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB">
<span lang="EN-GB">Caged Ball Bearings<o:p></o:p></span></span></h4>
<span lang="EN-GB">
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://wpcontent.answcdn.com/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Radial-deep-groove-ball-bearing_din625-t1_2rs_120.png/175px-Radial-deep-groove-ball-bearing_din625-t1_2rs_120.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://wpcontent.answcdn.com/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Radial-deep-groove-ball-bearing_din625-t1_2rs_120.png/175px-Radial-deep-groove-ball-bearing_din625-t1_2rs_120.png" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">In general use, for engine applications and
for equipment with rotational speeds in excess of 100 rpm. When used within engine/gearbox casings they
are lubricated with engine oil supplied by jets or by splash. When used outside casings, they are
lubricated by the application of grease which may be applied at specified
intervals by grease gun, or may be of the pre-packed type where lubricating
grease is packed and sealed into the bearing on assembly.<br /></span></div>
<h4 style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-list: l0 level4 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB">Crowded Ball Bearings<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;">
This bearing has filling slots in one or
both races and has no cage or separators.
The balls therefore touch each other during operation, hence the term <i>‘crowded’</i>. They are suitable only where slow rotation or
part rotation (oscillations) are found, and are usually of the sealed or
pre-packed type.<img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Ball_Bearing_-_open_(PSF).png" height="192" style="text-align: center;" width="320" /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<h4 style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-list: l0 level4 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB">Angular Contact Ball Bearings<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Accept radial loads, and axial loads in one
direction where a single bearing may be used.
For axial loads in both directions
an opposed pair of bearings is often used.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img src="http://www.nke.at/typo3temp/pics/7905f05441.jpg" height="225" width="320" /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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</script></div>Yasantha Pathiranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18412326342171131296noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6445091040474388919.post-90335987165143073362013-12-13T14:54:00.003+05:302021-05-01T10:20:44.450+05:30Thrust Reversers <!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;">There will be cases when the aircraft is required to
land on runways that are shorter than those for which the aircraft can normally
land.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is also beneficial to use less
runway than that available in order to have a safety margin in the event of a
failure.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Although the brakes on the
aircraft are designed to be adequate under all normal operating conditions, the
engine can assist in shortening the landing distance by using the thrust
reversal systems.In this system the engine thurst is vectored to the front to
slow down the aircraft.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQNmBShmbnLreHD0BZ0NyoGjC-twp0fWEqN3hD3WCO2u92aNOvBvWunYtdJUWHAjJ-LWG0-lZMDv8Rr-TabneqivqUJ1RyD2hhNTlH0icEuXKB_Ekp8xwSJ7VwemvzKNONl3y7uvgRr3I/s1600/ssss.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="223" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQNmBShmbnLreHD0BZ0NyoGjC-twp0fWEqN3hD3WCO2u92aNOvBvWunYtdJUWHAjJ-LWG0-lZMDv8Rr-TabneqivqUJ1RyD2hhNTlH0icEuXKB_Ekp8xwSJ7VwemvzKNONl3y7uvgRr3I/s400/ssss.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;">On a propeller engine this is very simply done by
reversing the pitch of the propeller blades so that they now thrust air forward
instead of backwards. Therefore the prop aircraft can change the direction of
thrust by 180 degrees. But, This is impossible to achieve with a jet engine,
The result of this is that the reversed thrust from a jet engine can never be
as fully effective as that from a propeller.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The thrust level obtained from the engine can be as high in reverse as
it is in forward thrust but, because of the angle involved, the effect can
never be the same as the forward thrust.</span></div>
<h3>
<span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" lang="EN-GB">types of reversers</span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span face=""Arial","sans-serif"" lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;">As far as jet engines are concerned there are three
basic types of thrust reverser:</span><span face="Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif"><span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<ul>
<li><span face="Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif"><span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Clamshell Door</span></span></li>
<li><span face="Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif"><span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Retractable Ejector</span><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"></span></span></li>
<li><span face="Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="-moz-font-feature-settings: normal; -moz-font-language-override: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"></span></span><span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Cold Stream Cascade Reverser </span></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: EN-AU; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"></span></span></div>
<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIdpdCuIws16nQMgBOTxEBcWcIQe8GlRmgDFvHrl3a-TpI1KWXiogbrOnNnD_Mveqca_VdLMRhqlg1U8KjF_UgK2XPxE9_XnSwg_RflHeFRnOb80lNrQ45ijhgZxCp0lXCU0gutNSMQUI/s400/Frevers1.jpg" width="323" /></div>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<span face="Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif"><span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;"> </span></span>
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</script></div>Yasantha Pathiranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18412326342171131296noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6445091040474388919.post-5443912225432990702013-12-06T19:30:00.003+05:302013-12-06T19:34:56.091+05:30Gas Turbine Combustion Systems<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-SG;">The
combustion system is designed to burn the fuel as efficiently as possible over
the whole range of engine operating condition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>All the energy released by the fuel is converted into heat and velocity
energy. Very high temperatures exist in the combustion system, the burning
temperature of the fuel being in the region of 2,000°C.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To protect the material from which the system
is manufactured, about 60% of the total air flow is used for cooling and the
rest is used for fuel burning. </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-SG; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-SG;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-SG;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The combustion chamber is quite short
therefore it must be efficient in completing the combustion. To achieve this
fuel air mixture is made with it best ratios.</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-SG; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-SG;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-SG;">The
combustion process requires 15 unit of air to 1 unit of fuel for a successful
combustion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is known as an air/fuel
ratio of 15:1 by weight</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-SG; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-SG;"></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-SG;">The air flow leaving the compressor is first split
into two, approximately 20% - 40% being used for combustion, the other 60% -
80% is further divided for combustion support and the greater proportion for
gas cooling. </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-SG; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-SG;"></span></div>
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<li><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-SG;">Primary air flow, for mixing with the fuel and to
support combustion.(20% )</span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-SG; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-SG;"></span></b></li>
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gas temperature to a figure acceptable to the turbine. ( Cooling 40% &
Dilution air 20%)</span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-SG; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-SG;"></span></b></li>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<!-- Kontera(TM);--><b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
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</script><!-- end Kontera(TM) --><div class="blogger-post-footer"><script async src="https://pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/js/adsbygoogle.js?client=ca-pub-2646886209802695"
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</script></div>Yasantha Pathiranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18412326342171131296noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6445091040474388919.post-8777690127522341152013-07-17T17:13:00.001+05:302013-07-17T19:51:03.561+05:30Aircraft Gasturbine Engine layout<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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they have the necessary parts inside the engine in longitudinal way, the main
components we will come across from front to rear end are usually as follows:</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">A shaft connects the turbine to the compressor which
creates the engine to rotate by using the gas reaction and generate the axial
flow. Fuel burners are positioned in the combustion system. Initial
ignition is provided once the air flow is produced by rotation of the
compressor, the pressure of the mass ensures the expanding gas in the
combustion chamber travels in a rearward direction. Once ignition is achieved,
the flame will be continuous, and the ignition device can be switched
off. The hot gases crossing the turbine produce torque to drive the
compressor, therefore the starter can also be switched off. This is usually
known as self-sustaining speed of the engine.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">In
the past the all the sections in compressor was one single unit and
turbine was one single unit. these two were attached using a spool or
shaft. however, now days the engines can provide high thrust for the
aircraft and the engine has made in different sections which allows
rotation of the compressor stages if different speeds to get optium
results. This kind of engines are named as multi spool engines which has
2- 3 shafts connecting different sections of turbines to matching
compressor sections. usually they are termed as <i><b>Low pressure Compressors / Low pressure Turbines</b></i> and <b><i>High pressure compressors/ High pressure turbines</i></b>. </span></span></span></div>
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</script></div>Yasantha Pathiranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18412326342171131296noreply@blogger.com0Sembawang, Singapore1.4533799 103.815829899999931.3898854 103.73514889999993 1.5168744 103.89651089999992tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6445091040474388919.post-6803342861994575872013-07-08T09:55:00.002+05:302013-07-08T09:55:33.748+05:30Gas turbine Engine Notations<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In order to simplify descriptions of the
gas flow through an engine, the various stations through the engine are
annotated. At each point where the condition of the gas is changed, the
pressure and temperature will be noted as a specific number. The number will
change depending on the number of spools there are in the engine so that, while
all engine inlet pressures and temperatures will be ‘1’, the exhaust could be
‘4’, ‘6’ or ‘8’ for single, twin and triple spool engines respectively.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-GB">The notations for
a single spool are shown above and, for comparison purposes, the notations for
a low by-pass twin spool engine are shown below. the main difference between these are the way how the notations are made. </span> </span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWaQPbeOG9dC3IUi1YOl8C1MaE__ZezjQKz8c3WW58vauW7svt6WfHsfiAGRyk3r_U1U3pAp4yrPnFHuqhqvBHH63XWI5oYYaskmxkPnX2wc3pF7GuZrWrWG2ih7bqj40DNLXJsybjwI4/s1600/gs.pngrr.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img border="0" height="230" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWaQPbeOG9dC3IUi1YOl8C1MaE__ZezjQKz8c3WW58vauW7svt6WfHsfiAGRyk3r_U1U3pAp4yrPnFHuqhqvBHH63XWI5oYYaskmxkPnX2wc3pF7GuZrWrWG2ih7bqj40DNLXJsybjwI4/s400/gs.pngrr.png" width="400" /></span></a></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br clear="ALL" />
<span lang="EN-GB"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">when we have multi- stage compressors or turbines the notation is given in such way that it shows the major state and then followed by the sub stage. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">eg: <i> low pressure compressor 3rd(P1 + 3 stages) stage would be noted as P1.3 same way High pressure compressor 4th stage will be noted as P2.4</i></span></div>
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</script></div>Yasantha Pathiranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18412326342171131296noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6445091040474388919.post-35612013179826816282013-04-16T20:40:00.001+05:302013-04-16T20:40:54.544+05:30The Turbine Section<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; tab-stops: 0cm 36.0pt 72.0pt 108.0pt 144.0pt 180.0pt 216.0pt 252.0pt 288.0pt 324.0pt 360.0pt 396.0pt 432.0pt 468.0pt 504.0pt 540.0pt 576.0pt 612.0pt 648.0pt 684.0pt 720.0pt 756.0pt 792.0pt 828.0pt 864.0pt 900.0pt 936.0pt 972.0pt 1008.0pt 1044.0pt 1080.0pt 1116.0pt 1152.0pt 1188.0pt 1224.0pt 1260.0pt 1296.0pt 1332.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-GB">The turbine is the unit providing the power to drive the
compressor and accessories and, in the case of engines which do not make use
solely of a jet for propulsion, of providing shaft power for a propeller or
rotor. It does this by extracting energy
from the hot gases released from the combustion system and expanding them to a
lower pressure and temperature. High
stresses are involved in this process, and for efficient operation, the turbine
blade tips may rotate at speeds over 450m/s. The continuous flow of gas to which the
turbine is exposed may have an entry temperature between 1000 and 2000 deg.C.
and may reach a velocity of over 750m/s when being passed in the turbine.<o:p></o:p></span>To produce the torque, the turbine may
consist of Several stages each consist of set of rotors and stators.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The torque or turning power applied to the turbine is governed by
the rate of gas flow and the energy change of the gas between the inlet and the
outlet of the turbine blades. The design
of the turbine is such that the whirl will be removed from the gas stream so
that the flow at exit from the turbine will be substantially 'straightened out'
to give an axial flow into the exhaust system. Excessive whirl reduces the
efficiency of the exhaust system and also tends to produce jet pipe vibration
which has a detrimental effect on the exhaust cone supports and struts and results in noise.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It will
be seen that the nozzle guide vanes and blades of the turbine are 'twisted',
the blades having a stagger angle that is greater at the tip than at the
root. The reason for the twist is to
make the gas flow from the combustion system do equal work at all positions
along the length of the blade and to ensure that the flow enters the exhaust
system with a uniform axial velocity.
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</script></div>Yasantha Pathiranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18412326342171131296noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6445091040474388919.post-53457470382739231822013-02-01T07:31:00.002+05:302013-02-01T07:33:05.236+05:30Piston Engine Valves <div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Engine valves are used to regulate the flow of gases
into and out of a cylinder by opening and closing at correct time in the
combustion process. Each cylinder has
at least one <b>INTAKE VALVE</b> and one <b>EXHAUST VALVE</b>. The intake valve controls the amount of
fuel/air mixture that is drawn into the cylinder through the intake port while the
exhaust valve allows the exhaust gases to exit the cylinder through the exhaust
port.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">These valves are faced into the combustion chamber of the cylinder and therefore those are subject to high temperatures, corrosion, and extreme operating
stresses. Therefore, valves must be
constructed of metals that are able to resist these stressful operating factors. For example, intake valves operate at lower temperatures
than exhaust valves and, therefore, are typically made of <b><i>chrome, nickel, or
tungsten steel. </i></b> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">However, since exhaust
valves must endure much higher temperatures they are usually made of more heat
resistant metals such as<b><i> inconel, silicon‑chromium or cobalt-chromium alloys.</i></b><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><b><i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></i></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As mentioned, each cylinder must have at
least one intake and one exhaust valve;
however, on some high powered engines, two intake and two exhaust valves
are provided for each cylinder for better operational performances. There are various types of valves used in piston engines and the most
common type of valve used in aircraft engines is the <b><i>poppet valve</i></b> which gets
its name from the popping action of the valve.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Poppet valves are classified according to
their head shape which may come in four basic designs:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Flat head valve : <span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">As its name implies, this valve has a flat head
and is typically used <b>ONLY as an
intake valve</b> in aircraft engines</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Semi Tulip head valve : <span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">This valve has a slightly concave area on its
head.</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Tulip head valve : <span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">This valve has a deep, wide indented area on its
head.</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mashroom head valve : <span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">This valve has a convex head and is <b>NOT</b> commonly found on aircraft engines</span></span></li>
</ul>
<div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMS_oJ7jsEFaPPoAfH7c1GQOW1au0OtdqXRnRmP5jwIsocmcX0Uwo4vTBlZTvctuauL0TIiaz4A0-wkmHI-7TKY3n5o1nt-dFWsmkGfFyB75Fb7N_ZLIIze5iMPnJsRswxZycACI9uKPU/s1600/Picture1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="125" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMS_oJ7jsEFaPPoAfH7c1GQOW1au0OtdqXRnRmP5jwIsocmcX0Uwo4vTBlZTvctuauL0TIiaz4A0-wkmHI-7TKY3n5o1nt-dFWsmkGfFyB75Fb7N_ZLIIze5iMPnJsRswxZycACI9uKPU/s400/Picture1.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-GB">The valve face is that portion of the valve
that creates a seal at the ports. A valve face is typically ground to an angle
of between 30</span><span lang="EN-GB">°</span><span lang="EN-GB"> and 60</span><span lang="EN-GB">°</span><span lang="EN-GB"> to form a seal against valve seat when then valve is closed. In
some engines, the intake valve face is ground to 30</span><span lang="EN-GB">°</span><span lang="EN-GB"> while the exhaust valve face is ground to 45</span><span lang="EN-GB">°</span><span lang="EN-GB">. The engine manufacturer
specifies the exact angle which is based on airflow, efficiency, and sealing
ability. Valve faces are often made more
durable by welding <b><i>STELLITE</i></b>, an
<b>alloy of cobalt and chromium,</b> to the valve face. Once applied, the face is ground to the
correct angle. Stellite resists high
temperatures and corrosion and withstands the shock and wear associated with
valve operation.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhKcCI3pYy0IDLI1syFPwWsvSack3Ii88pYnLcBvZVx15YicBK0OYqcTxpq83N59IDA88zzQBU6op9D6fkyq1f8mFreqco9zNddhsV54IRh_23EVRQL70SFB28Wbr84Pm8ZxDt84S5wkq8/s1600/Picture3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="237" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhKcCI3pYy0IDLI1syFPwWsvSack3Ii88pYnLcBvZVx15YicBK0OYqcTxpq83N59IDA88zzQBU6op9D6fkyq1f8mFreqco9zNddhsV54IRh_23EVRQL70SFB28Wbr84Pm8ZxDt84S5wkq8/s400/Picture3.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The <b>Valve stem</b> acts as a guide to keep the valve head properly aligned as it moves
back and forth. Most valve stems are
surface hardened to resist wear and are joined to the valve head at the <b>Valve neck</b>. The <b>TIP</b>
of a valve stem is also hardened to withstand both wear and hammering. A groove is machined around the valve stem near the tip for a <b>SPLIT KEY. </b>This key will keep the valve spring
retaining washers in place and hold the valve in the cylinder head.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgQVVFgHZG2CNv6Rok5oGAB5_3sLCRMUT4e89XCzmTF8U9iJuAhvvexS1e4W9agUkoCUSsK7Qd1X56afrrmqmnbg5y2il35mT7LhNJhsKNSWUwWDQMAYjArW0Wjn5pGGCLNG6H8ifpIZg/s1600/Picture2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="171" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgQVVFgHZG2CNv6Rok5oGAB5_3sLCRMUT4e89XCzmTF8U9iJuAhvvexS1e4W9agUkoCUSsK7Qd1X56afrrmqmnbg5y2il35mT7LhNJhsKNSWUwWDQMAYjArW0Wjn5pGGCLNG6H8ifpIZg/s400/Picture2.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">To help dissipate heat better, some exhaust
valve stems are hollowed out and then partially filled with <b>Metalic Sodium( Na)</b>. When installed in an operating engine, the
sodium melts when the valve stem reaches approximately 98</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">°</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">C. The melted sodium
circulates naturally due to the up and down motion of the valve and helps carry
heat from the valve head into the stem where it is dissipated to the oil circulating at the cylinder head.</span></div>
</div>
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</script></div>Yasantha Pathiranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18412326342171131296noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6445091040474388919.post-1565302743251562762012-12-31T14:46:00.001+05:302012-12-31T14:46:18.120+05:30Piston Engine Connecting Rosds<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The connecting rod is the link which
transmits forces between the piston and the crankshaft. Connecting rods must be strong enough to
remain rigid under load and yet be light enough to reduce the inertia forces
which are produced when the rod and piston stop, change direction, and start
again at the end of each stroke.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">There are three types of connecting-rod
assemblies:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<ul>
<li><span style="text-align: justify;">The master-and-articulated-rod assembly</span></li>
<li><span style="text-align: justify;">The plain-type connecting rod</span></li>
<li><span style="text-align: justify;">The fork-and-blade connecting
rod</span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><o:p><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></div>
<h3>
<span lang="EN-GB"><b><u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB">The master-and-articulated-rod assembly</span></u></b></span></h3>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The master-and-articulated rod assembly is
commonly used in radial engines. In a
radial engine the piston in one cylinder in each row is connected to the
crankshaft by a master rod. All other
pistons in the row are connected to the master rod by an articulated rod. The articulated rods are constructed of
forged steel alloy in either the I- or H-shape, denoting the cross-sectional
shape. Bronze bushings are pressed into
the bores in each end of the articulated rod to provide knuckle-pin and piston-pin
bearings.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The master rod serves as the connecting
link between the piston pin and the crankpin.
The crankpin end, or the ‘<i>big end’</i>
contains the crankpin or master rod bearing.
Flanges around the big end provide for the attachment of the articulated
rods. The articulated rods are attached
to the master rod by knuckle pins, which are pressed into holes in the master
rod flanges during assembly. A plain
bearing, usually called a piston-pin bushing, is installed in the piston end of
the master rod to receive the piston pin.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjiDyN29u5syujVTwbl3D7hCw7Ca4HWYoLqDh_RPwAkSIr2icd-4bNVv8JAL4euHhTjTeO9AXYT69kix0vRl1E9hZOxwTU0wP6MjbZLuu2o8zALPecUBnoiqgOKsy0YvS6pqtTQHftMS2M/s1600/mas.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="282" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjiDyN29u5syujVTwbl3D7hCw7Ca4HWYoLqDh_RPwAkSIr2icd-4bNVv8JAL4euHhTjTeO9AXYT69kix0vRl1E9hZOxwTU0wP6MjbZLuu2o8zALPecUBnoiqgOKsy0YvS6pqtTQHftMS2M/s320/mas.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<u>Plain-type connecting rods</u></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<span lang="EN-GB">Plain-type connecting rods are used in
in-line and opposed engines. The end of
the rod attached to the crank pin is fitted with a cap and a two-piece bearing. The bearing cap is held on the end of the rod
by bolts or studs. To maintain proper
fit and balance, connecting rods should always be replaced in the same cylinder
and in the same relative position.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjlwBJNnG4Vm57S1U38yUDWnhRHdEC5dryKZ7oyAUZzVaW8dk8CeZRpjBjBqYK_m7pNz1lVJqPwHugSr7qxMX_0-W5laIdB9uX1WaXT_Z-xwMwprDV-DA3k-FqKHCCX-0qMfufjoUwe1GU/s1600/topdoo$210516051(s).jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="229" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjlwBJNnG4Vm57S1U38yUDWnhRHdEC5dryKZ7oyAUZzVaW8dk8CeZRpjBjBqYK_m7pNz1lVJqPwHugSr7qxMX_0-W5laIdB9uX1WaXT_Z-xwMwprDV-DA3k-FqKHCCX-0qMfufjoUwe1GU/s320/topdoo$210516051(s).jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<u>The fork-and-blade rod </u></h3>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEja0ScbHAkwON3xClTE-igWbmaRsO6Obxq-kynx7whi-1d5BCQTVTNHx75QdNoqZEeisLWNVNOpTnwusdDGCUd7bJF7AeTI2AoH8fdFIS0CsO1BQ_9gYgeSOqEz3PZw1Q3RQawEBI7thx4/s1600/image108.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEja0ScbHAkwON3xClTE-igWbmaRsO6Obxq-kynx7whi-1d5BCQTVTNHx75QdNoqZEeisLWNVNOpTnwusdDGCUd7bJF7AeTI2AoH8fdFIS0CsO1BQ_9gYgeSOqEz3PZw1Q3RQawEBI7thx4/s1600/image108.jpg" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<span lang="EN-GB">The fork-and-blade rod assembly is used
primarily in V-type engines. The forked
rod is split at the crankpin end to allow space for the blade rod to fit
between the prongs. A single two-piece
bearing is used on the crankshaft end of the rod.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></div>
</span></div>
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</script></div>Yasantha Pathiranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18412326342171131296noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6445091040474388919.post-16782562585676065732012-10-22T09:02:00.001+05:302012-10-22T09:02:15.717+05:30Construction of a Piston<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The piston of a reciprocating engine is a
cylindrical member which moves back and forth within a steel cylinder. The piston acts as a moving wall within the
combustion chamber. As the piston moves
down in the cylinder, it draws in the fuel/air mixture. As it moves upward, it compresses the charge,
ignition occurs, and the expanding gases force the piston downward. This force is transmitted to the crankshaft
through the connecting rod. On the
return upward stroke, the piston forces the exhaust gases from the cylinder.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span>
<span lang="EN-GB"></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">The majority of aircraft engine pistons are
machined from <b>aluminium alloy forgings</b>.
Grooves are machined in the outside surface of the piston to receive the
piston rings, and cooling fins are provided on the inside of the piston for
greater heat transfer to the engine oil.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Pistons may be either the<b> trunk type or the
slipper type</b>. Slipper type pistons are
not used in modern, high-powered engines. All the rings will be fitted
above the gudgeon pin(Piston pin). The top face of
the piston, or head, may be either<b> flat, convex, or concave</b>. Recesses may be machined in the piston head
to prevent interference with the valves.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhLcN2ZmvcK709DNv6MCoRaCv1eus9PJOSv1jka2M9K-Vt3LWU6sJnCqqfjN3B8uP_-aF8Gd2LrReSJhfwLIA__3TUf6ir0-PS47rmOlRmZGLs2-aJ97D7GeczN6eVS6-ky0zRVmdmP9hc/s1600/jj.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="134" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhLcN2ZmvcK709DNv6MCoRaCv1eus9PJOSv1jka2M9K-Vt3LWU6sJnCqqfjN3B8uP_-aF8Gd2LrReSJhfwLIA__3TUf6ir0-PS47rmOlRmZGLs2-aJ97D7GeczN6eVS6-ky0zRVmdmP9hc/s320/jj.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">As many as six grooves may be machined
around the piston to accommodate the compression rings and oil rings. The compression rings are installed in the
three uppermost grooves; the oil control
rings are installed immediately above the piston pin. The piston is usually drilled at the oil
control ring grooves to allow surplus oil scraped from the cylinder walls by
the oil control rings to pass back into the crankcase. An oil scraper ring is installed at the base
of the piston wall or skirt to prevent excessive oil consumption. The portions of the piston walls that lie
between each pair of ring grooves are called the<b> ring lands</b>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjJiy0yp15BafOlfiEKLji4WK4vMl0Jd55cikmoXswiCjqsALYjx6Omz5Fzt8jSHuH7WmPyOqZs4isg9uDKo3j4JL8wWZQBXC8cZY_MlPjSVcwFHPMkMnE53B8yokHQyXf9unY50_pNOag/s1600/pi.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="278" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjJiy0yp15BafOlfiEKLji4WK4vMl0Jd55cikmoXswiCjqsALYjx6Omz5Fzt8jSHuH7WmPyOqZs4isg9uDKo3j4JL8wWZQBXC8cZY_MlPjSVcwFHPMkMnE53B8yokHQyXf9unY50_pNOag/s400/pi.png" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">In addition to acting as a guide for the
piston head, the piston skirt incorporates the piston-pin bosses. The piston-pin bosses are of heavy
construction to enable the heavy load on the piston head to be transferred to
the piston pin.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</span></div>
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</script></div>Yasantha Pathiranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18412326342171131296noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6445091040474388919.post-88902702640064361332012-09-03T14:17:00.000+05:302012-09-03T14:17:25.298+05:30Piston Engine Cylinders<div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The portion of the engine in which the power is developed is called the cylinder. The cylinder provides a combustion chamber where the burning and expansion of gases takes place, and it houses the piston and the connecting rod.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: inherit;">There are four major factors that need to be considered in the design and construction of the cylinder assembly. These are:</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br />
</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span lang="EN-GB">·<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB">It must be strong enough to withstand the internal pressures developed during engine operation.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span lang="EN-GB">·<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB">It must be constructed of a lightweight metal to keep down engine weight.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span lang="EN-GB">·<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB">It must have good heat-conducting properties for efficient cooling.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span lang="EN-GB">·<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB">It must be comparatively easy and inexpensive to manufacture, inspect, and maintain.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br />
</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br />
</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The head is either produced singly for each cylinder in air-cooled engines, or is cast <i>‘in-block’</i> (all cylinder heads in one block) for liquid-cooled engines. The cylinder head of an air-cooled engine is generally made of aluminium alloy, because aluminium alloy is a good conductor of heat and its light weight reduces the overall engine weight. Cylinder heads are forged or die-cast for greater strength. the inner shape of a cylinder head may be flat, semispherical, or peaked, in the form of a house roof. The semispherical type has proved most satisfactory because it is stronger and aids in a more rapid and thorough scavenging of the exhaust gases.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="all" style="page-break-before: always;" /></span><span lang="EN-GB">·<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB">The Cylinder Head<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB">·<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB">The Cylinder Barrel<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: inherit;">At assembly, the cylinder head is expanded by heating and then screwed down on the cylinder barrel which has been chilled, thus, when the head cools and contracts, and the barrel warms up and expands, a gastight joint results. While the majority of the cylinders used are constructed in this manner, some are one-piece aluminium alloy sand castings. The piston bore of a sand cast cylinder is fitted with a steel liner which extends the full length of the cylinder barrel section and projects below the cylinder flange of the casting. This liner is easily removed, and a new one can be installed in the field. </span><o:p></o:p></span></div><!-- Kontera(TM);--> <script type="text/javascript">
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</script></div>Yasantha Pathiranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18412326342171131296noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6445091040474388919.post-60572576896155496152012-06-24T12:38:00.000+05:302012-06-24T12:38:26.293+05:30Cam Shaft<div class="Heading3introduction"><br />
</div><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span lang="EN-GB">The valve mechanism of an opposed engine is operated by a camshaft. The camshaft is driven by a gear that mates with another gear attached to the crankshaft. The <b>camshaft Usually</b></span><span lang="EN-GB"><b> rotates at one-half the crankshaft speed.</b> in other words, when the cam shaft rotates two cycles the cam shaft only complete one cycle.There are number of lobes which are machined on the cam shaft and As the camshaft revolves, the lobes cause the tappet assembly to rise in the tappet guide, transmitting the force through the push rod and rocker arm to open the valve according to the sequence .<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7fHNrTSEC61-Wx33Tq6ENGVPns-6juVAdlVPeVBsbWcBfSFg3_XigqgCETiuLuO5bLR-e5Xs7abS0Cn0H0I1UzcvQsOmc0S9-3bT2y-2e0EPTUAMsFaTMkF5981GX020jY8CYcb6Yj_Q/s1600/b.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="371" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7fHNrTSEC61-Wx33Tq6ENGVPns-6juVAdlVPeVBsbWcBfSFg3_XigqgCETiuLuO5bLR-e5Xs7abS0Cn0H0I1UzcvQsOmc0S9-3bT2y-2e0EPTUAMsFaTMkF5981GX020jY8CYcb6Yj_Q/s400/b.png" width="400" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span lang="EN-GB">The profile of the lobe controls in terms of crankshaft degrees the point of valve opening, the rate of valve opening, the period the valve remains open, the rate of valve closing and the point at which the valve closes.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEguI5Ph7GHy_f_Z6UEbWFEHN8FCeHpSa-PvAhzf5tsx1jdFuMLYAiJols63Q0eHq9HUWp7RlEzNMn_m-7eZFk0LXOBIa-PTFvMZftKK100XRU8Dn_O0ule0WlTOgkgx5qLym7lvpy1tA8A/s1600/a.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="293" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEguI5Ph7GHy_f_Z6UEbWFEHN8FCeHpSa-PvAhzf5tsx1jdFuMLYAiJols63Q0eHq9HUWp7RlEzNMn_m-7eZFk0LXOBIa-PTFvMZftKK100XRU8Dn_O0ule0WlTOgkgx5qLym7lvpy1tA8A/s320/a.png" width="320" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span lang="EN-GB"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 6.0pt;"><span lang="EN-GB">For radial engine the cam shaft operation is provided by a ring which is known as the Cam Ring. this is a circular metal ring with the lobes on it in a circler. this helps the radial engine rocker arms to be opened and closed as per the firing order. More information on radial engine cam ring will posted in next post. </span></div><script type="text/javascript">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgkrU3pg7JVw_wrZG-b-GWm3Aq7YlHIWjCSmloim7DIr-aJvjLXoBbjEJZqqWu9l1zrbdPPKHbUzAzAtiX5ZxO_h9Nd6Oz6RcWpSQKFAfqrVfBChl1YV7b29S6Va6sz9tVHy6DURDspmIA/s1600/a.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="139" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgkrU3pg7JVw_wrZG-b-GWm3Aq7YlHIWjCSmloim7DIr-aJvjLXoBbjEJZqqWu9l1zrbdPPKHbUzAzAtiX5ZxO_h9Nd6Oz6RcWpSQKFAfqrVfBChl1YV7b29S6Va6sz9tVHy6DURDspmIA/s320/a.png" width="320" /></a><span lang="EN-GB">The purpose of
this component is to change the reciprocating motion(up and down movement) of the piston into rotary
motion. Crankshafts are usually alloy
steel forgings with their journals and crankpins hardened to resist wear. The crankpins and journals are usually
hollow, to reduce weight, these spaces being interconnected by drillings in the
crank webs to provide passages for lubricating oil.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB">A shaft is classified according to the number
of <i>‘throws’</i> or cranks, for instance a
<i>’six throw’<b> </b></i>shaft has six crankpins.
The crankwebs are sometimes extended, the extra metal providing a means
of balancing the assembly or provide provisions for attachment of damping weights. Suitable
drives at each end of the crankshaft transmit the torque to the reduction gear
and the accessory drives and In direct drive engines the crankshaft is connected to the propeller with or without the propeller governor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsy2krKqiWsY5xPoOVvIZFTss2v0pmsFimTbCVYygOfaoKH6GY-66Gi_gSkzeTHm1vjLRb0xXMWiJSSYL2k_iblVuKmqP6Qzjt3Tw59kTEKKFoGzjeLsJMvmCS6QqjayZBpg6npqHL-ZU/s1600/c.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="245" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsy2krKqiWsY5xPoOVvIZFTss2v0pmsFimTbCVYygOfaoKH6GY-66Gi_gSkzeTHm1vjLRb0xXMWiJSSYL2k_iblVuKmqP6Qzjt3Tw59kTEKKFoGzjeLsJMvmCS6QqjayZBpg6npqHL-ZU/s400/c.png" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB">The simplest
crankshaft is the single-throw or 360</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Symbol;">°</span><span lang="EN-GB"> type. This type is used in a single-row radial
engine. It can be constructed in one or two pieces. Two main bearings (one on each end) are
provided when this type of crankshaft is used.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgWGQs_cqtR82qF4nViMam3SC0B6iwqGloEmE6GaEHN4Yt48WV_1dXWHjQ6XTBSnoWdAplzzCGWs5HgN8Wk4egjouawYTjVakZYf7WhscfCh4oz9fYa54VOoLB4NC3NIb1yotCpjBD3QoA/s1600/LX09-1E36(1).jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="307" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgWGQs_cqtR82qF4nViMam3SC0B6iwqGloEmE6GaEHN4Yt48WV_1dXWHjQ6XTBSnoWdAplzzCGWs5HgN8Wk4egjouawYTjVakZYf7WhscfCh4oz9fYa54VOoLB4NC3NIb1yotCpjBD3QoA/s320/LX09-1E36(1).jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB">The double-throw
or 180</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Symbol;">°</span><span lang="EN-GB"> crankshaft is used on double-row or 180</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Symbol;">°</span><span lang="EN-GB"> crankshaft is used on double-row radial engines. In the radial-type engine, one throw is
provided for each row of cylinders.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></div>
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</script></div>Yasantha Pathiranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18412326342171131296noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6445091040474388919.post-73406697107858327642012-05-18T16:39:00.003+05:302012-05-18T16:39:43.886+05:30Piston Engines Crankcase<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">This is the name given to that part of the
engine that houses the crankshaft and connecting rods. It provides mounting faces for the cylinders
or cylinder blacks, reduction gear, wheel case and other units. It may be a single casing or build-up of
several sections depending on the type of engine. It will contain the main bearings which are
usually plain metal bearings for in-line engines and roller bearings for radial
engines. The engine mountings for
in-line engines take the form of our feet and a steel ring is usually used for
radial engines. Provision is made at the
lowest point of the crankcase for collection of engine oil for recirculation which is known as the engine oil sump</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The crankcase is subjected to many variations
of vibrational and other forces. Since
the cylinders are fastened to the crankcase, the tremendous expansion forces
tend to pull the cylinder off the crankcase.
The unbalanced centrifugal and inertia forces of the crankshaft acting
through the main bearing subject the crankcase to bending moments which change
continuously in direction and magnitude.
The crankcase must have sufficient stiffness to withstand these bending
moments without deflections or deformations.
If the engine is equipped with a propeller reduction gear, the front or
drive end will be subjected to additional forces causing engine case to be more stressful.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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</script></div>Yasantha Pathiranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18412326342171131296noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6445091040474388919.post-90538533762541950732012-04-18T16:45:00.000+05:302012-04-18T16:45:45.762+05:30Aircraft Piston Engine Operation<div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">The principles which govern the relationship between the pressure, volume, and temperature of gases are the basic principles of engine operation.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">An internal-combustion engine is a device for converting heat energy into mechanical energy. Fuel (Avgas) is vaporized and mixed with air, forced or drawn into a cylinder, compressed by a piston, and then ignited by an electric spark. The conversion of the resultant heat energy into mechanical energy and then into work is accomplished in the cylinder. There are various engine components necessary to accomplish this conversion and for efficiency of the engine.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">The operating cycle of an internal combustion reciprocating engine includes the series of events required to induct, compress, ignite, burn, and expand the fuel/air charge in the cylinder, and to scavenge or exhaust the by-products of the combustion process.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj54TmrwPOQeVXuSYWKC4PkEXbHzUELKrnbiRarIcNeG0kYE9ms45FYJI5RIzzwkotMG9o4dCKJIPKGU2iPt8nw7uzVhqzZt08o9QDVb5RV64cTJBmG0MvtQZAVSTpHp1HVYjxisWSHd4c/s1600/aaa.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj54TmrwPOQeVXuSYWKC4PkEXbHzUELKrnbiRarIcNeG0kYE9ms45FYJI5RIzzwkotMG9o4dCKJIPKGU2iPt8nw7uzVhqzZt08o9QDVb5RV64cTJBmG0MvtQZAVSTpHp1HVYjxisWSHd4c/s400/aaa.png" width="300" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">When the compressed air fuel mixture is ignited, the resultant gases of combustion expand very rapidly and force the piston to move away from the cylinder head. This downward motion of the piston, acting on the crankshaft through the connecting rod, is converted to a circular or rotary motion by the crankshaft.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">A valve in the top or head of the cylinder opens to allow the burned gases to escape, and the momentum of the crankshaft and the propeller forces the piston back up in the cylinder where it is ready for the next event in the cycle. Another valve in the cylinder head then opens to let in a fresh charge of the fuel/air mixture.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">The valve allowing for the escape of the burning exhaust gases is called the <b>exhaust valve</b>, and the valve which lets in the fresh charge of the fuel/air mixture is called the<b> intake valve. </b> These valves are opened and closed mechanically at the proper times by the valve-operating mechanism.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">The<b> </b><i><b>bore</b> of a cylinder is its inside diameter</i>. The<b> </b><i><b>stroke</b> is the distance the piston moves from one end of the cylinder to the other, specifically, from TDC (Top Dead Centre) to BDC (Bottom Dead Centre)</i>, or vice versa.<o:p></o:p></span></div><script type="text/javascript">
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</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Systems vary considerably on different aircraft but the basic elements are similar. HRD or high rate discharge is the term applied to most systems in common use.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">The extinguishant is pressurised with an inert gas and sealed in the container by means of a discharge or operating head. When operated, either by selector switches (fire handles) on the flight deck or crash switches, an electrically fired cartridge or squib ruptures a metal diaphragm within the discharge head and the extinguishant is released. It then flows through spray pipes, spray rings or discharge nozzles into the appropriate firezone. The electrical power is 28 volts dc and is supplied from an essential services busbar.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Most aircraft use a <i>‘two shot’</i> extinguishing system for the power plants. This uses connections between the individual power plant systems. In this system the fire extinguishers for each power plant are interconnected. This allows two separate discharges of extinguishant into any one power plant. On many aircraft two fire bottles are installed in each engine nacelle. This allows two separate discharges of extinguishant into each power plant. Indication that a fire extinguishing circuit has been operated is indicated by a warning light.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In some installations special switches are incorporated to automatically operate the extinguishers in the event of a crash. These switches also connect cabin emergency lights to the aircraft battery power supply. Two types of crash switch are in common use:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListBullet5"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB">The inertia control type <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListBullet5"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB">The frangible type.<o:p></o:p></span></div><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="all" style="page-break-before: always;" /> </span> <br />
<div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">An inertia controlled switch generally consists of a heavy piston supported on its own spring and so arranged that at the required degree of deceleration (a typical value is 3g), it compresses the spring and causes a bow spring to snap over thereby bridging contacts connected in the extinguishing system circuit. To allow resetting of the switch after operation or rough handling during transit, a reset plunger is incorporated.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Frangible switches consist of two electrical contacts mounted in a hermetically sealed glass envelope. The contacts are prevented from closing by a spring, but in the event of the glass envelope being shattered, the contacts will close and complete the circuit to the extinguishing system. The switches are located in positions such as the wing tips, the underside of engine nacelles, at various points on the underside of the fuselage, etc. This is so that in the event of a crash, at least one of the switches will be shattered.<o:p></o:p></span></div><script type="text/javascript">
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<div class="Heading3introduction"><u><b><span>Methyl Bromide</span></b></u></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span>This extinguisher boils at 4.6</span><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>°</span></span><span>C and was used for the protection of power plants in older aircraft.<span> </span>It is toxic and should not be used in confined spaces, flight crew compartments or passenger cabins.<span> </span>This extinguisher is no longer listed.<span> </span>Existing bottles may be maintained but refills will not be made with </span><span>Methyl Bromide</span><span>.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="Heading4subheading"><u><b><span>Bromochlorodifluoromethane (BCF)</span></b></u></div><div class="Heading4subheading"><u><b><span><br />
</span></b></u></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span>This semi-toxic extinguisher is particular effective against electrical and flammable liquid fires.<span> </span>It is used in power plant systems, and for the protection of auxiliary power units in some aircraft.<span> </span>It is also used in certain types of portable extinguisher.<span> </span>It becomes gaseous at normal temperatures and condenses to liquid at -4</span><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>°</span></span><span>C (25</span><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>°</span></span><span>F), and can be stored and discharged at moderate pressures.<span> </span>It has little or no corrosive effect, although halogen acids will be formed if its products which have been decomposed by fire comes into contact with water, eg. condensation caused by fire.<span> </span>In contact with fire, BCF volatilizes instantly, giving rapid flame extinction with little or no harmful effect on metallic, wooden, plastic or fabric materials.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span>Also known as Halon 1211.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="Heading4subheading"><u><b><span>Bromotrifluoromethane (BTM)</span></b></u></div><div class="Heading4subheading"><u><b><span><br />
</span></b></u></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span>This semi-toxic extinguishant is used for the protection of power plant and APUs.<span> </span>It is also widely used in cargo compartment fire suppression systems of some types of aircraft.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span>Also known as Halon 1301.<span> </span>It has a boiling point of -58</span><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>°</span></span><span>C.</span></div><script type="text/javascript">
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</script></div>Yasantha Pathiranahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18412326342171131296noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6445091040474388919.post-21579797418584778522012-03-01T20:51:00.002+05:302012-03-02T11:22:31.128+05:30Aircraft Towing<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><script type="text/javascript">
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</script></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">On aircraft with a nose-wheel landing gear, a steering arm should be fitted to the nose wheel to guide the aircraft Light aircraft can be moved and guided, by hand or by a tug. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEixLQhOJQuiZJj57Zt2WgmlL1eNrZMjVKNhZczeKE5OrMpMchwPO3Mx09F8mRwhGGop2H168pUfHz6N9u4ZuCOhFm_T-BJ5AvVuSIeEPlt1SDqwWUycxNMKOH-AWOOlORkANtFuxqhKWng/s1600/Picture2.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="330" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEixLQhOJQuiZJj57Zt2WgmlL1eNrZMjVKNhZczeKE5OrMpMchwPO3Mx09F8mRwhGGop2H168pUfHz6N9u4ZuCOhFm_T-BJ5AvVuSIeEPlt1SDqwWUycxNMKOH-AWOOlORkANtFuxqhKWng/s400/Picture2.png" width="400" /></a></span></div><span style="font-size: small;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Special attention should be paid to the following:</span></div><ul style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><li><h5><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-weight: normal;">Force should not be applied to the thin trailing or rear edges of wings or control surfaces such as ailerons or elevators.</span></span></h5></li>
<li><h5 style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">Generally speaking it is better to push an aircraft backwards rather than forwards, because the leading edges of the wings and tailplane are stronger than the trailing edges.</span></span></h5></li>
<li><h5 style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">The struts, which support the undercarriage on some aircraft, are suitable for pushing the aircraft as these are the strength parts of the aircraft.</span></span></h5></li>
<li><h5 style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">The flat of the hands should be used when pushing, so as to spread the load over the largest area.</span></span></h5></li>
<li><h5 style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">When pushing on struts, the force should be applied as near to the end fittings as possible.</span></span></h5></li>
<li><h5 style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">A propeller must never be used to push or pull the aircraft, as the engine should always be regarded as 'live' and a propeller may kick if it is turned.</span></span></h5></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">On aircraft with a steering nose wheel connected to the rudder pedals, care must be taken not to exceed the turning limits. Normally the maximum limits are marked on nose wheel doors as “NO TOW”</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">On this type of aircraft it is also important that the rudder controls are not locked during the towing operations. This is because the rudder controls and the nose-wheel steering mechanism are interconnected and the excessive movements could damage the mechanical linkages.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">When towing aircraft by tow bar and tug special care should be given to below facts,</span></div><h5 style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-weight: normal;">The correct tow-bar should be connected between the towing attachment at the base of the nose undercarriage leg and the tug.</span></span></h5><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: small;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuF16fNVvxav0MeXe_j2vx7ysMFI39pM86uNU9IVxW-kpdNQlJTlBj8vK8DEaRaPZyX6lw7g3fbT0GeaQQ3unpRNAiuI6SDcAqAmdJk9ddx0zSLVc9gLms41fpfpgVwaRVCb2LDhKIj3c/s1600/Picture1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="208" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuF16fNVvxav0MeXe_j2vx7ysMFI39pM86uNU9IVxW-kpdNQlJTlBj8vK8DEaRaPZyX6lw7g3fbT0GeaQQ3unpRNAiuI6SDcAqAmdJk9ddx0zSLVc9gLms41fpfpgVwaRVCb2LDhKIj3c/s400/Picture1.png" width="400" /></a></span><span style="font-size: small; line-height: 115%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-indent: -0.25in;"></div><ul style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><li><h5><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-weight: normal;">A person familiar with the aircraft brake system should be seated in the cockpit/cabin to operate the brakes in an emergency. The brakes should not normally be applied unless the aircraft is stationary.</span></span></h5></li>
<li><h5 style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">Once the tow-bar is connected, the brakes, and if fitted, the rudder lock, may be released and the aircraft towed at a safe speed. A safe speed is considered to be walking speed.</span></span></h5></li>
<li><h5 style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">A close watch should be kept on the wing tips and tail, particularly in confined spaces, to ensure that they do not come into contact with other stationary or moving object.</span></span></h5></li>
<li><h5 style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEia7aO-Id7pJiJr5qFbw72EOvpSyr0gxJ3DSf_wnMlROXTrczZ0UhTthZVFNi_XUOLGU7kBus0IYglJHvksJ0k4gHIx0Z9jaQ9QzvJG_JwGpasvNWC4Qt7juPNFXwfy8EK-bLmZf6gAJKc/s1600/bridel.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="192" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEia7aO-Id7pJiJr5qFbw72EOvpSyr0gxJ3DSf_wnMlROXTrczZ0UhTthZVFNi_XUOLGU7kBus0IYglJHvksJ0k4gHIx0Z9jaQ9QzvJG_JwGpasvNWC4Qt7juPNFXwfy8EK-bLmZf6gAJKc/s320/bridel.png" width="320" /></a></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">In circumstances where the ground over which the aircraft has to be towed is either boggy or very uneven, the strain imposed on the nose undercarriage may be excessive and it may be necessary to tow the aircraft by means of bridles attached to each main undercarriage. If towing attachments are not provided on the main undercarriage legs, ropes should be passed carefully around the legs as near to the top as possible and avoiding fouling on adjacent pipes or structure. A separate tug should be connected to each main undercarriage assembly. Steering should be carried out by means of a steering arm attached to the nose wheel rather than by differential movement of the tugs.</span></span></h5></li>
</ul><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgNokMBM5Mygv-O3aQU6rV5XWUO6bHsklnqp2qP82-EzUFVm_Gpb7LBhnw5rQKmiHNkfA5Zg9NZ6YKHQN5t34So2P2zQr8Zr0uea9TRJQwxg0mLWbsH0Y6wu1x3iBeysXyhndwrGqjVlC0/s1600/bride+uc.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="236" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgNokMBM5Mygv-O3aQU6rV5XWUO6bHsklnqp2qP82-EzUFVm_Gpb7LBhnw5rQKmiHNkfA5Zg9NZ6YKHQN5t34So2P2zQr8Zr0uea9TRJQwxg0mLWbsH0Y6wu1x3iBeysXyhndwrGqjVlC0/s320/bride+uc.png" width="320" /></a></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">The most common means of towing a large aircraft nowadays is by means of a tow bar-less aircraft handling tractor.These tractors tend to be front wheel driven and therefore when towing an aircraft, are acting to <i>‘pull’</i> the tractor/aircraft combination.The towbarless tractor consists of a low level tractor with a rear mounted cradle, comprising of a <i>‘scoop and gate’</i> assembly.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br />
</span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/sU9PceCFziQ?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></span></div><span style="font-size: small;"><br />
</span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Owing to the tractor’s low height it can easily move-in under the aircraft’s fuselage to couple-up with the aircraft’s nose wheel. During operation the nose wheel is raised by about 20cms by the tractor and after the towing is completed the nose wheel is lowered and the nose wheel is released from the cradle.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><script type="text/javascript">
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